Coasting the Yucatan Peninsula

The Spanish would have sailed close to the coast.

Sailing to the mainland

Cortes left Cuba with 11 ships, 500 men, 13 horses, and a few cannons. They crossed the Straits of Yucatan in February, 1519.

The Final Seige

The Spanish embarked for Tenochtitlan in December and spent four months subduing and enlisting Valley tribes. In April, 900 Spanish and 50,000 Indian troops arrived at Tenochtitlan. Tenochtitlan, which had been ravaged by a smallpox epidemic in Fall, 1520, was greatly weakened. Neverthless, under the leadership of the new emperor, Cuauhtemoc, they fought ferociously for four months. On August 13, 1521, the Conquest of Mexico came to an end.

In defeat, Cuauhtemoc told his people: “Our Sun has been lost from view and has left us in complete darkness. But we know it will return again that it will rise again to light us anew. Let's join together, let's embrace each other and in the very center of our being hide all that our hearts love and we know is the Great Treasure. Let us hide our Temples our schools, our sacred soccer game our youth centers our houses of flowery song so that only our streets remain. Our homes will enclose us until our New Sun rises.”

Headquarters at Tepeaca

The Tepeacans, a Spanish ally, had killed 12 Spaniards. Cortes ordered an attack to make an example to other tribes and to secure Tepeaca's strategic location. The Spanish then established fort "Security of the Frontier" at Tepeaca and prepared for their final assault on Tenochtitlan.

Rest at Tlaxcala

The Spanish then recuperated at Tlaxcala for several weeks. The Aztecs negotiated with the Tlaxcalans to switch sides but the Tlaxcalans refused.

The Battle of Otumba

On their retreat, a large Aztec army confronted the Spanish at Otumba. Cortes singlehandedly killed the Aztec general and led the Spanish and Tlaxcalans to victory.

La Noche Triste

With Cortes gone, the hot-headed Pedro de Alvarado commanded Tenochtitlan with only 100 soldiers. Fearing an Aztec ambush, Alvarado struck first. The Aztecs responded by closing off the exits from Tenochtitlan. Cortes returned on June 25 and forced Moctezuma to plead for peace. Moctezuma was killed as he spoke to the masses and the Aztecs attacked. As they fled back to Tlaxcala, between 600 and 1,000 Spanish and several thousand Tlaxcalans were killed.

Rearguard action at Zempoala

In April, 1520, Governor Velasquez sent 1,200 troops under Panphilo de Narvaez to arrest Cortes. Cortes and about 300 men surprised Narvaez at Cempoala and defeated him. Narvaez's soldiers, inspired by Aztec booty, then joined Cortes' army.

Kidnapping Moctezuma

After a week in Tenochtitlan, Cortes took bold action to reduce his vulnerability to the Aztecs: he took Moctezuma prisoner and claimed to rule Tenochtitlan. During the winter of 1519-1520, Cortes faced increasing Aztec opposition.

Arrival in Tenochtitlan

Bernal Diaz, upon the Spaniards’ arrival in Tenochtitlan: “With such wonderful sights to gaze on we did not know what to say, or if this was real that we saw before our eyes. On the land side there were great cities, and on the lake many more. The lake was crowded with canoes. At intervals along the causeway there were many bridges, and before us the great city of Mexico.”

Cholula Massacre

From Tlaxcala, Cortes and his Indian allies marched 20 miles to Cholula. The Spanish were welcomed to the ancient ceremonial center. La Malinche, however, soon heard a rumor that the Aztecs had ordered the Cholulans to ambush the Spanish. Alerted to the threat, Cortes massacred the Cholulans gathered at their temple to Quetzalocoatl. Word of the Spaniards' ruthless show of force intimidated other tribes into joining the Spanish cause.

War with Tlaxcala

On August 16, 1519, the Spanish left Villa Rica for Tenochtitlan. They first encountered the independent city-state of Tlaxcala. After a costly series of battles, the Tlaxcalans sued for peace and joined the Spanish as allies. At the outset of the fighting, Xicotencatl, the Tlaxcalan general, threatened: "The Spaniards will be welcome in our city, where their flesh will be hewn from their bodies for sacrifice to the gods! Tomorrow I will deliver this answer in person!" In turn, Cortes inspired his troops with Spanish religio-nationalism: "Forward, comrades! If we fail now the cross of Christ can never be planted in the land. When was it ever known that a Castilian turned his back on a foe?"

Cuba in 1519

Cuba was discovered by Columbus on his 1492 voyage. in 1511, Captain Diego Velasquez de Cuellar was sent to colonize Cuba. Hernan Cortes, Velasquez's son in law, took part in the conquest of Cuba and was rewarded with a large land grant and Indian slaves. With Velasquez's support, Cortes planned an expedition to Mexico in 1517 and 1518. Velazquez, however, forbid Cortes to establish a new colony in Mexico.

Cempoala

The Totonacs were a tribe which had been recently conquered by the Aztecs. They were resentful and sought their freedom. Totonac ambassadors came to Villa Rica and invited the Spanish to visit their city of Cempoala. While the Spanish were in Cempoala, Aztec tribute collectors arrived and demanded human sacrifices from the Totonacs for entertaining the Spanish. Cortes promised to help the Totonacs rebel against the Aztecs and persuaded the Totonacs to kidnap the tribute collectors. Despite their new alliance, the Spanish attacked the Totonacs to force them to accept Christianity.

Cortes burns his boats

Cortes was intent on gaining as much treasure and fame for himself as he could. He exceeded his authority by establishing a colony at Villa Rica. He then sent a treasure ship to Spain with a message justifying his actions. Some of Cortes' men fled to Cuba to report him to the Governor. Faced with opposition from above and below, Cortes ordered his ships to be burned to prevent further mutiny.

La Malinche

After Cortes' first military victory on the Gulf Coast, they received 20 Indian women in tribute. One of them was La Malinche or Malintzin, christened Dona Marina. She spoke Nahuatl, the Aztecs' language, and interpreted for the Spanish. La Malinche was Cortes' mistress and they had a son in 1522. She serves as a symbol of Native American betrayal and, alternately, Mexico's mestizo heritage.

Geronimo de Aguilar

Cortes found Geronimo de Aguilar, a shipwrecked priest who had been held captive by the Mayas since 1511, at Cozumel. De Aguilar spoke Spanish and Maya and would be a translator for the expedition. The caption reads, "Geronimo de Aguilar is presented to Cortes after eight years of slavery among the indians."

Villa Rica

In 1519, Cortes and his army landed near Vera Cruz. They built a fort that would be their base camp for the conquest of Mexico. They named their settlement La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. The picture on the left shows the view from the fort and the one on the right shows the fort's foundations.